Spirocerca lupi in the stomach of two Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) from Chile.

The genus Spirocerca includes nematodes that parasitize the stomach and the oesophagus of carnivores, chiefly canids. Herein, we provide new data about the morphological, histopathological, and molecular characterization of Spirocerca sp. in Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) in Chile. Intact immature worms, identified as Spirocerca sp., were recovered in the lumen of the stomach from two foxes. Histologically, worms morphologically consistent with spirurid nematodes were present within the wall of the stomach and surrounded by nodular areas of inflammation with central necrotic debris. Molecular analysis of the cox1 gene yielded 19 sequences and 5 nucleotide sequence types with 99.95 to 99.98% similarity, being shared between both foxes. Nucleotide similarity ranged from 93.1 (with genotype 2 of S. lupi and S. vulpis) to 95.8% (with genotype 1 of S. lupi), a higher similarity than noted from sequences of S. lupi from an Andean fox from Peru (91.0 to 93.3%). However, the Poisson Tree Processes for species delineation did not support the existence of a new species Spirocerca. Phylogenetic and nucleotide analyses suggest that these specimens belong to a new variant or genotype of S. lupi or to a cryptic species. Whether the presence of the worms in the stomach has to do with genotypic differences in parasites or host or some combination is uncertain. Spirocerca lupi has never been found in Chilean dogs and must be investigated.

Is Gastric Involvement by Strongyloides stercoralis in an Immunocompetent Patient a Common Finding? A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

PURPOSE: Gastric infection with Strongyloides stercoralis (SS) usually occurs in immunocompromised patients. The unexpected observation of this parasite in an otherwise healthy young lady who had undergone upper endoscopy and biopsy sampling of the gastro-duodenal mucosa, prompted us to review the literature to ascertain the conditions favouring gastric colonization by SS. METHODS: Pathology files of gastroduodenal biopsies received at St. Mary's hospital, Northern Uganda, between 2007 and 2017 were reviewed. Pubmed search was performed under the headings "Strongyloides stercoralis", "Gastric parasitosis". RESULTS: Histology of the only gastroduodenal biopsy with SS infection showed parasite eggs, immature rhabditiform larvae, and numerous adult worms in gastric pits and rhabditiform larvae in interepithelial parasitic tunnels, causing reactive changes of the glandular epithelium. There was no significant acute inflammatory cell infiltrate surrounding the parasites. Literature review showed that gastric SS infection appears to be very uncommon and was, as expected, largely prevalent in immunodeficient individuals (84.2% of published cases). The rare gastric SS infection is a complication of systemic strongyloidiasis, either hyperinfective, or disseminated form. It is also commonly associated with duodenal infection at microscopical examination. CONCLUSION: Involvement of gastric mucosa in the absence of duodenal strongyloidiasis appears to be quite rare and false-negative histopathological exams are reported if only the stomach is biopsied.

Therapeutic effects of benznidazole in Swiss mice that are orally inoculated with Trypanosoma cruzi IV strains from the Western Brazilian Amazon.

Strains of Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, are classified into different discrete typing units that may present distinct dynamics of infection and susceptibility to benznidazole (BZ) treatment. Mice that were orally inoculated with T. cruzi IV strains exhibited a more intense course of infection compared with intraperitoneally inoculated mice, reflected by higher parasite loads. We evaluated the efficacy of BZ treatment in Swiss mice that were inoculated with T. cruzi IV strains from the Western Brazilian Amazon. The mice were orally (OR) or intraperitoneally (IP) inoculated with 2 × 106 culture-derived metacyclic trypomastigotes of the AM14, AM16, AM64, and AM69 strains of T. cruzi that were obtained from two outbreaks of orally acquired acute Chagas disease in the state of Amazonas, Brazil. The animals were treated with BZ (100 mg/kg/day for 20 days). Fresh blood examination, hemoculture, conventional and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were performed to monitor the therapeutic effects of BZ. Significant reductions in five of 24 parameters of parasitemia and parasite load were found in different tissues in the OR group, indicating worse response to BZ treatment compared with the IP group, in which significant reductions in nine of those 24 parameters were observed. The cure rates in the OR groups ranged from 18.2% (1/11) to 75.0% (9/12) and in the IP groups from 58.3% (7/12) to 91.7% (11/12), for the AM14 and AM69 strains, respectively. These findings indicate that treatment with BZ had fewer beneficial effects with regard to reducing parasitemia and parasite load in different tissues of mice that were OR inoculated with four TcIV strains compared with IP inoculation. Therefore, the route of infection with T. cruzi should be considered when evaluating the therapeutic efficacy of BZ in patients with Chagas disease.

Description and Molecular Differentiation of a New Skrjabinoptera (Nematode: Physalopteridae) from Eutropis macularia (Sauria: Scincidae) in North-Central Vietnam.

Skrjabinoptera vietnamensis n. sp. is described from specimens recovered from the stomach of Eutropis macularia in north-central Vietnam. The new species is characterized by the medium-sized male worms (6.7-8.7 mm in length and 154-182 µm in width) relative to known members of the genus, 2 pointed spicules of unequal length (87-112 µm and 56-72 µm in length), and 10 pairs of caudal papillae. Female worms are larger than male worms (10.7-18.4 mm in length and 264-411 µm in width), with the vulva situated in the anterior part, and embryonated, elliptical eggs, 35-46 µm long by 20-24 µm wide. Skrjabinoptera vietnamensis n. sp. represents the ninth species assigned to the genus and the first species recorded from the Oriental region. Partial sequences of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA), and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) are provided for the new species. The molecular phylogenetic position of the genus Skrjabinoptera is briefly discussed.

Host Genetics Background Influence in the Intragastric Trypanosoma cruzi Infection.

Background: Considering the complexity of the factors involved in the immunopathology of Chagas disease, which influence the Chagas' disease pathogenesis, anti-T. cruzi immune response, and chemotherapy outcome, further studies are needed to improve our understanding about these relationships. On this way, in this article we analyzed the host genetic influence on hematological, histopathological and immunological aspects after T. cruzi infection. Methods: BALB/c and A mice were intragastrically infected with T. cruzi SC2005 strain, isolated from a patient of an outbreak of Chagas disease. Parameters such as parasite load, survival rates, cytokines production, macrophages, T and B cell frequencies, and histopathology analysis were carried out. Results: BALB/c mice presented higher parasitemia and mortality rates than A mice. Both mouse lineages exhibited hematological alterations suggestive of microcytic hypochromic anemia and histopathological alterations in stomach, heart and liver. The increase of CD8+ T cells, in heart, liver and blood, and the increase of CD19+ B cells, in liver, associated with a high level of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ), confer a resistance profile to the host. Although BALB/c animals exhibited the same findings observed in A mice, the response to infection occurred later, after a considerable parasitemia increase. By developing an early response to the infection, A mice were found to be less susceptible to T. cruzi SC2005 infection. Conclusions: Host genetics background shaping the response to infection. The early development of a cytotoxic cellular response profile with the production of proinflammatory cytokines is important to lead a less severe manifestation of Chagas disease.

Histopathological changes in the gastrointestinal tract and systemic alterations triggered by experimental oral infection with Trypanosoma cruzi.

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in almost all countries of Latin America. In Brazil, oral infection is becoming the most important mechanism of transmission of the disease in several regions of the country. The gastrointestinal tract is the gateway for the parasite through this route of infection, however, little is known about the involvement of these organs related to oral route. In this sense, the present study evaluated the impact of oral infection on the digestive tract in mice infected by Berenice-78 (Be-78) T. cruzi strain, in comparison with the intraperitoneal route of infection. In this work, the intraperitoneal route group showed a peak of parasitemia similar to the oral route group, however the mortality rate among the orally infected animals was higher when compared to intraperitoneal route. By analyzing the frequency of blood cell populations, differences were mainly observed in CD4+ T lymphocytes, and not in CD8+, presenting an earlier reduction in the number of CD4+ T cells, which persisted for a longer period, in the animals of the oral group when compared with the intraperitoneal group. Animals infected by oral route presented a higher tissue parasitism and inflammatory infiltrate in stomach, duodenum and colon on the 28th day after infection. Therefore, these data suggest that oral infection has a different profile of parasitological and immune responses compared to intraperitoneal route, being the oral route more virulent and with greater tissue parasitism in organs of the gastrointestinal tract evaluated during the acute phase.

Cryptobia iubilans Infections in Discus Fish in Trinidad and Tobago.

Discus (Symphysodon spp.) are costly and prized specimens in the international ornamental fish trade. The majority of discus submitted to the Aquatic Animal Health Unit at the University of the West Indies School of Veterinary Medicine for necropsy between September 2010 and September 2015 had lesions consistent with Cryptobia iubilans infection, thus prompting this study. To determine the prevalence of the flagellated gastrointestinal protozoan C. iubilans in discus fish, 32 discus were sourced from 10 suppliers, including breeders, importers, and hobbyists across Trinidad. Fish were euthanized, and the internal organs, particularly the stomach and intestine, were observed under a light microscope for characteristic granulomatous lesions and/or live C. iubilans parasites. All wet-mount slides on which granulomas were observed were also Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast stained to presumptively exclude the presence of Mycobacterium spp., the main differential when diagnosing C. iubilans-associated granulomatous gastritis or to determine the presence of dual infections. Further histological analyses were performed on stomach and intestinal sections, and transmission electron microscopy was used to confirm the parasite in stomach sections. The prevalence of C. iubilans infection was found to be 81.3%, and the prevalence of presumptive dual infections with Mycobacterium spp. was found to be 21.9%. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first documented study of C. iubilans infections in the wider Caribbean region.

First report of Spirocerca vulpis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Portugal.

Recent studies have described Spirocerca lupi-like nematodes in the stomach of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Europe. A phylogenetic analysis of those specimens using mitochondrial DNA and their morphological reexamination allowed their characterization as a different species, Spirocerca vulpis. Between the years of 2010 and 2017, roundworms were collected from seven red foxes of northeastern Portugal found at necropsy with nodular lesions on their stomach wall. Histopathological analysis of four foxes revealed granulomatous lesions of the gastric nodules. On morphological assessment, by light microscopy, nematodes revealed the presence of six triangular teeth-like buccal capsule structures, which are absent in S. lupi. Polymerase chain reaction was run to amplify a 551 bp partial fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene. Sequences were 99% similar to S. vulpis (85% coverage) of red foxes from Spain and Bosnia and Herzegovina, 99% similar (99% coverage) to sequences of Spirocerca sp. of red foxes from Denmark and 93% similar (99% coverage) to S. lupi from South Africa. This is the first report of S. vulpis in foxes or any other host from Portugal.

Monogenean parasites from the stomach of Oreochromis mossambicus from South Africa: two new species of Enterogyrus (Dactylogyridae: Ancyrocephalinae).

The study provides descriptions of two new species of Enterogyrus coexisting in the stomach of the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters). Enterogyrus multispiralis n. sp. and Enterogyrus mashegoi n. sp. were collected from hosts sampled at Nwanedi-Luphephe Dam, Limpopo River System, South Africa. The two new species can be differentiated from other members of the genus based on the spirality characteristics of the cirrus. Enterogyrus multispiralis n. sp. has an unique 8/9-2-4 cirrus spiral formula. The length of the cirrus and its spriral formula 5-2-3 make E. mashegoi n. sp. morphometrically unique from other Enterogyrus spp. Sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA partial 18S and internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) and 28S were obtained and compared with available sequences of Enterogyrus in GenBank. This is the first record of data on 18S rDNA region of Enterogyrus spp. A phylogenetic comparison was conducted, which included all data available for Enterogyrus spp., but this was limited to 28S data. The closest species to both new species of the present study was an undescribed Enterogyrus sp. 2 from Sarotherodon galilaeus (Linnaeus) described from Senegal (i.e. 2.1 and 2.9% uncorrected pairwise genetic distance to E. multispiralis n. sp. and E. mashegoi n. sp., respectively). These species represent new records for Africa resulting in a total number of 12 described valid species.

Morphology and Molecular Characterization of Parabronema smithii (Cobbold, 1882) (Nematoda: Habronematidae) from Wild Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) of Sri Lanka.

PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to carry out a detailed study of morphological features and to determine the phylogenetic position of Parabronema smithii (Cobbold, 1882) found in wild elephants in Sri Lanka. METHODS: Adult worms were collected from stomach ulcers at postmortem examination of wild elephants in the Udawalawe National Park, Sri Lanka. The detailed morphology of P. smithii was studied using light microscopy and, for the first time, scanning electron microscopy. Fifteen morphological characteristics were investigated. The phylogenetic analysis was conducted using the second internal transcribed spacer region (ITS2), and portions of the large subunit ribosomal DNA (28S) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1). Furthermore, the present study provides a comparison of morphology and morphometrics of Parabronema species that occur in different hosts. CONCLUSION: Parabronema smithii isolated from wild elephants exhibited the key morphological features. Phylogenetic analysis of selected genes revealed that P. smithii is closely associated with P. skrjabini and Habronema spp. Findings of the present study enhance our understanding of the biology and taxonomy of P. smithii in wild elephant in Sri Lanka and will contribute to future phylogeographic studies.

Recent increase of ulcerative lesions caused by Anisakis spp. in cetaceans from the north-east Atlantic.

Species of Anisakis typically infect the stomach of cetaceans worldwide, often causing ulcerative lesions that may compromise the host's health. These nematodes also cause anisakiasis or allergic reactions in humans. To assess the risks of this emerging zoonosis, data on long-term changes in Anisakis infections in cetaceans are necessary. Here, we compare the prevalence and severity of ulcerative lesions caused by Anisakis spp. in five cetacean species stranded along the north-west Spanish coast in 2017-2018 with published data from 1991-1996. Open ulcers were found in 32/43 short-beaked common dolphins, Delphinus delphis; 3/5 striped dolphins, Stenella coeruleoalba; 1/7 bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus; and 1/3 harbour porpoises, Phocoena phocoena meridionalis; a single individual of long-finned pilot whale, Globicephala melas, was found uninfected. In common dolphins, the mean abundance of open ulcers per host was 1.1 (95% confidence interval: 0.8-1.3), with a maximum diameter (mean ± standard deviation) of 25.4 ± 16.9 mm. Stomachs with scars or extensive fibrosis putatively associated with Anisakis were detected in 14 and five animals, respectively. A molecular analysis based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase II gene using 18 worms from three cetacean species revealed single or mixed infections of Anisakis simplex sensu stricto and Anisakis pegreffii. Compared with the period 1991-1996, we found a strong increase of prevalence, abundance and extension of ulcerative lesions in most cetacean species. Anisakis populations could have increased in the study area over the last decades, although we cannot rule out that a higher environmental stress has also boosted the pathological effects of these parasites.

Gastrointestinal helminth parasites of the common wallaroo or euro, Osphranter robustus (Gould) (Marsupialia: Macropodidae) from Australia.

The gastrointestinal helminth parasites of 170 common wallaroos or euros, Osphranter robustus (Gould), collected from all mainland states in which the species occurs as well as the Northern Territory, are presented, including previously published data. A total of 65 species of helminths were encountered, including four species of anoplocephalid cestodes found in the bile ducts and small intestine, and 61 species of strongylid nematodes, all but two of which occurring in the stomach, and with the remainder occurring in the terminal ileum, caecum and colon. Among the mainland subspecies of O. robustus, 52 species of helminths were encountered in O. r. robustus, compared with 30 species in O. r. woodwardi and 35 species in O. r. erubescens. Of the parasite species encountered, only 17 were specific to O. robustus, the remaining being shared with sympatric host species. Host-specific species or species occurring in O. robustus at a high prevalence can be classified as follows: widely distributed; restricted to northern Australia; restricted to the northern wallaroo, O. r. woodwardi; found only in the euro, O. r. erubescens; found essentially along the eastern coast of Australia, primarily in O. r. robustus; and species with highly limited regional distributions. The data currently available suggest that the acquisition of a significant number of parasites is due to co-grazing with other macropodids, while subspeciation in wallaroos as well as climatic variables may have influenced the diversification of the parasite fauna.

New species of Wallabinema Beveridge, 1983 (Nematoda: Strongyloidea) and a redescription of W. gallardi (Johnston & Mawson, 1939) from Australian macropodid marsupials.

Two new species of Wallabinema Beveridge, 1983 are described from the sacculated fore-stomachs of macropodid marsupials in Australia. Wallabinema petrogale n. sp. from the rock wallabies Petrogale penicillata (J. Gray) and P. inornata Gould, from Queensland, differs from all congeners in having its four sub-median lips subdivided at the base. Wallabinema macropodis n. sp. from the black stripe wallaby Macropus dorsalis (J. Gray) and the red-necked pademelon Thylogale thetis (Lesson), also from Queensland, is most similar to congeners with the nerve-ring encircling the oesophageal isthmus (W. parvispiculare Beveridge, 1983, W. tasmaniense Beveridge, 1983 and W. thylogale Beveridge, 1983), but differs in the length of the spicules. Wallabinema gallardi (Johnston & Mawson, 1939) is redescribed from T. thetis in Queensland and New South Wales, with T. thetis considered to be the type-host.

Four new species of Rugopharynx Mönnig, 1927 (Nematoda: Strongyloidea) parasitic in the stomachs of macropodid marsupials from Australia.

Four new species of Rugopharynx Mönnig, 1927 are described from macropodid marsupials in Australia, some identified initially using molecular methods. Rugopharynx thetidis n. sp. from Thylogale thetis (Lesson) was initially included within R. sigma Chilton, Beveridge & Andrews, 1993 but was identified as being distinctive using molecular methods and is differentiated morphologically from R. sigma by the more anterior position of the deirid and by the distinctive curvature of the spicule tips. Rugopharynx thylogale n. sp., also from Thylogale thetis, is distinguished by the extreme elongation of the dorsal lobe of the bursa and spicule length (1.07-1.23 mm). Rugopharynx solitarius n. sp., again from Thylogale thetis, was initially included within Rugopharynx zeta (Johnston & Mawson, 1939) but differs morphologically in the features of the bursa. Rugopharynx disiunctus n. sp. from Macropus fuliginosus (Desmarest) was initially included within Rugopharynx rho Beveridge & Chilton, 1999 but was identified as distinctive based on DNA sequence differences. The new species differs from R. rho in the pattern of striations on the buccal capsule and in the lengths of the spicules. Additional records of species of Rugopharyx in M. fuliginosus in Western Australia are provided.

Comparison of risk factors between human intestinal and gastric Anisakiasis.

BACKGROUND: Little is known in the difference of host factors between intestinal and gastric anisakiasis. The aim of this study was to investigate the associated factors of intestinal anisakiasis in patient's characteristics and the subsequent variation compared to gastric anisakiasis. METHODS: At St. Luke's International Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, a retrospective cohort study was conducted from April 2004 to June 2017. All adult patients who were clinically diagnosed as anisakiasis based on Computed Tomography (CT) scan or endoscopy were included, and anti-Anisakis antibodies (IgG and IgA) were measured for serological validation of anisakiasis, strengthen the diagnosis. Anisakiasis was categorized as either intestinal or gastric depending on its affected site. We compared patients' demographics, social history, and physical and laboratory findings between those with intestinal and gastric anisakiasis by bivariate analyses, followed by multivariate analyses. RESULTS: A total of 302 patients were included in this study, where the mean age (SD) was 46.5 (14.4) and 66.6% were male. Ninety-two patients (30.5%) had intestinal anisakiasis. Multivariate regression revealed that patients with intestinal anisakiasis were more 45 years old or older (odds ratio (OR) 3.45, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.53-7.69), male (OR 2.70, 95% CI: 1.20-6.25) and regular alcohol drinker. In terms of the physical and laboratory findings, patients with intestinal anisakiasis had greater heart rate (OR 2.86, 95% CI: 1.33-6.25), higher total protein (OR 2.86, 95% CI: 1.16-6.67), and higher C-reactive protein (CRP) (OR 11.1, 95% CI: 3.03-33.3). CONCLUSIONS: Older males who were regular alcohol drinkers were associated with intestinal anisakiasis, and often heart rate, total protein, and CRP were elevated compared to those of patients with gastric anisakiasis.

Soboliphyme baturini (Nematoda: Soboliphymatidae) Recovered from Stomach of Asian Badger, Meles leucurus, in Geochang-gun, Gyeongsangnam-do, Korea.

We are going to describe the female soboliphymid nematodes, which were recovered from the stomach of a Asian badger, Meles leucurus (Mammalia: Mustelidae), in Geochang-gun, Gyeongsangnam-do, Korea. In February 1998, we found 2 peculiar nematodes with a cup-like organ in the anterior end from the stomach of badger. Recovered worms were fixed with 10% formalin, cleared in glycerin-alcohol solution and observed under a light microscope with a micrometer. They were 34.46 (33.43-35.50) mm long by 2.13 mm at maximum width. Cephalic sucker cup-like, 3.34 (3.13-3.55) mm wide, 2.40 (2.25-2.55) mm long, with the oral aperture and meridionally striated on the buccal capsule. Oral aperture 2.38 mm in diameter. Circumoral membrane 0.41 (0.38-0.45) mm wide. Esophagus muscular, 4.81 (4.50-5.00) mm long by 0.80 (0.78-0.83) mm at maximum width. Vulva situated at 3.13 mm ventro-anterior level from the esophago-intestinal junction. Vagina anteriad, 3.38 mm long, making a canal from the uterus to the vulva opening. Uterus single, large. Tail 0.35 (0.33-0.38) mm long. Intrauterine eggs long elliptical, 0.058-0.065 (0.062) mm long and 0.030-0.033 (0.031) mm wide. Based on the some morphological characters and host-specificity, our specimens are nearly identical with S. baturini. Therefore, the present report describes S. baturini for the first time in Korea.

The Occurrence of Physaloptera hispida and a Mastophorus Sp. in Pulmonary Vessels of Hispid Cotton Rats (Sigmodon hispidus) from Georgia, U.S.A.

During 2017-2018, a survey for the rat lungworm, Angiostrongylus cantonensis (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea), in rodents from Piedmont and Lower Coastal Plains physiographic regions of Georgia was conducted. On 4 occasions, a single worm was recovered from the pulmonary vessels of a single cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidis). One of these worms was identified as a Physaloptera sp. and the remaining 3 as a Mastophorus sp. by morphology. No A. cantonensis were found. Physaloptera (Nematoda: Physalopteroidea) and Mastophorus species (Nematoda: Spiruroidea) are stomach parasites of many wild and domestic animals. This is the first report of these species in the pulmonary vessels of a definitive host. To better characterize these parasites, representative specimens were collected from cotton rat stomachs and identified morphologically and molecularly. Based on partial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene sequences, Physaloptera hispida from stomachs were identical to the Physaloptera sp. from the pulmonary vessels. The COI sequences from the Mastophorus sp. from the stomach exhibited a higher degree of variability but confirmed that the pulmonary worms were the same Mastophorus species. Furthermore, sequences of Mastophorus from a coastal site clustered separately from a clade of Mastophorus sequences from cotton rats from a Piedmont site. Our data show that adult worms recovered from pulmonary vessels of cotton rats could be either Physaloptera or Mastophorus sp., indicating that these parasitic worms are not always restricted to the stomach and that worms from pulmonary vessels must be carefully examined to obtain a definitive diagnosis of A. cantonensis infection.

Helminth-microbiota cross-talk - A journey through the vertebrate digestive system.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract of vertebrates is inhabited by a vast array of organisms, i.e., the microbiota and macrobiota. The former is composed largely of commensal microorganisms, which play vital roles in host nutrition and maintenance of energy balance, in addition to supporting the development and function of the vertebrate immune system. By contrast, the macrobiota includes parasitic helminths, which are mostly considered detrimental to host health via a range of pathogenic effects that depend on parasite size, location in the GI tract, burden of infection, metabolic activity, and interactions with the host immune system. Sharing the same environment within the vertebrate host, the GI microbiota and parasitic helminths interact with each other, and the results of such interactions may impact, directly or indirectly, on host health and homeostasis. The complex relationships occurring between parasitic helminths and microbiota have long been neglected; however, recent studies point towards a role for these interactions in the overall pathophysiology of helminth disease, as well as in parasite-mediated suppression of inflammation. Whilst several discrepancies in qualitative and quantitative modifications in gut microbiota composition have been described based on host and helminth species under investigation, we argue that attention should be paid to the systems biology of the gut compartment under consideration, as variations in the abundances of the same population of bacteria inhabiting different niches of the GI tract may result in varying functional consequences for host physiology.

Gasterophilus flavipes (Oestridae: Gasterophilinae): A horse stomach bot fly brought back from oblivion with morphological and molecular evidence.

Species of Gasterophilus Leach are obligate parasites in domestic and wild equids and responsible for cosmopolitan gasterophilosis. Although with only eight species known so far, they have received considerable attention because of their significant veterinary and economic importance. Surprisingly, we found that G. flavipes (Olivier) is a valid species based on morphological characters from male, female and the egg, after spending half a century as a synonym of G. haemorrhoidalis (Linnaeus). In the present study, G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis (Brauer), which are the three closely related species possessing a remarkable mixture of shared morphological characters, are diagnosed and comparatively redescribed; the key to separate adults and eggs are provided, together with a series of high-resolution photographs from all the body parts. COI barcodes do not allow for a separation of G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, but showed a closer relationship between G. flavipes and G. haemorrhoidalis than the other two combinations, which is consistent with the morphological evidence. Geographically, G. flavipes seems to be common and widespread in the warmer parts of the Palaearctic region. Thus, the epidemiology of gasterophilosis where G. flavipes is known or supposed to occur calls for a more careful veterinarian re-assessment. A decline in the populations of Gasterophilus spp. has been noticed in Europe, but all seven Palaearctic species of Gasterophilus appear to maintain stable populations in Xinjiang (China), which may be explained by a higher biodiversity of equids and less use of anti-parasitic treatments in Xinjiang than in Europe. Our study shows that morphological characters still provide the solid backbone in classification of Gasterophilus at species-level, and updated diagnoses and a key is provided to distinguish G. flavipes, G. haemorrhoidalis and G. inermis, and to facilitate studies of epidemiology, phylogeny and host-parasite co-evolution.

Strongyloides stercoralis infection in San Marino Republic: first epidemiological data from an observational study.

Strongyloides stercoralis is a neglected parasite that can cause death in immunocompromised individuals. There were no data on the epidemiology of S. stercoralis infection in San Marino Republic until two patients (one of whom died) were diagnosed with severe strongyloidiasis (hyperinfection) between September 2016 and March 2017. A serology test for Strongyloides spp. was introduced in routine practice in the laboratory of the State Hospital to test patients considered to be at risk for strongyloidiasis. Between August 2017 and August 2018, of 42 patients tested with serology, two (4.8%) were positive. An additional case was found by gastric biopsy. Two of the positive cases were presumably autochthonous infections (elderly people with no significant travel history), while the other was a probable imported case (young man born in Nigeria and settled in Europe since 2003). Epidemiology of strongyloidiasis in San Marino might be similar to Northern Italy, where a relevant proportion of cases was diagnosed in immigrants (mainly from sub-Saharan Africa) and in elderly Italians with eosinophilia. Screening for strongyloidiasis might be worthwhile in inhabitants of San Marino in the same categories of individuals, particularly those at risk of immune suppression.